Electronics-Free Walking Robots Printed in One Go

A team of engineers at the University of California San Diego has developed walking robots that are fully 3D printed from a single, simple material—without any electronics. Using just a cartridge of compressed gas for actuation, these robots can walk right off the 3D printer and begin moving, unassisted.

Rethinking Robotics Through Material Simplicity
This research reimagines traditional robotics by eliminating the need for multiple materials, motors, sensors, and wiring. Instead, the team designed a new class of robots built from standard 3D printing filament. Actuation is achieved pneumatically: compressed gas is used to control movement via air-powered muscles embedded into the printed structure. This minimalist approach reduces both the complexity and material waste typically associated with robotic manufacturing.

Such a technique holds promise for lightweight, cost-effective, and potentially biodegradable robots suitable for environments where electronics fail—such as extreme heat, radiation, or underwater.

Performance with Minimal Resources
The robots, once printed, can operate continuously for several days if connected to a pressurised air source. They’ve proven capable of traversing various terrains—including sand, gravel, and even underwater environments—without any electronic assistance.

Thanks to off-the-shelf 3D printers and filament, these robots are highly accessible and affordable to manufacture. Importantly, they showcase how mechanical design can substitute for complex control systems, using geometry and pressure to generate coordinated, lifelike motion.

Applications for Designers
For product and industrial designers, the implications are substantial. These robots highlight new opportunities for designing kinetic or responsive systems with a dramatically reduced material and energy footprint. The concept could influence soft robotic furniture, adaptive architectural elements, or wearables that respond mechanically to pressure, touch, or environment without the need for embedded circuitry.

Designers interested in sustainability may also appreciate the shift away from multi-component assemblies toward single-material, monolithic systems. While the material used isn’t (yet) biobased or compostable, the project reduces the environmental load by removing rare earths, electronics, and wiring.

Collaboration and Future Directions
The team collaborated with BASF’s California Research Alliance to test various printable soft materials, expanding the design’s compatibility with more sustainable or performance-specific polymers. Although the current prototypes use standard plastic filament, future adaptations may integrate bioplastics or recycled materials, opening pathways toward circular robotic systems.

The research was partly funded by the US National Science Foundation and previously showcased at the Gordon Research Conference on Robotics.

Source: University of California San Diego
Photo: University of California San Diego